3.3 Leading adult learners: preparing future leaders and professional  (Page 4/9)

Bloom’s (1965) contribution to learning was to define the cognitive (knowledge) domain in unison with the affective (attitudes, beliefs, values) domain. His taxonomy for educational objectives is widely used today for developing and helping students categorize test questions.

Lave and Wenger (1991) have defined their learning research as adult learning theory. They have recently identified that as we grow older engaging in communities of practice increases our ability to analyze our experiences. They call this intentional reflection. This is a commonly used process today in adult learning.

Social constructivism

For Vygotsky (1978) learner development occurs first at the social level and later on an individual level. Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development is the potential for learning when children participate in social behavior. His work which began in the 1920’s was embraced during the later part of the 20 ^th century for its contribution to cultural understanding in how we learn.

Approaching it from another perspective Bandura’s (1986) observational learning has motivation at the heart of the theory. His four steps are attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

Humanist

Humanistic learning theory focuses on the emotional and affective aspects of the learner. Maslow’s research was centered on the need for experiential learning. Experiential learning emphasized ones ability to choose, encouraged our creativity, values, and self realization. Personal dignity in learning was at the heart of this theory. Rogers also believed that learning should be at the personal level. Learning should include ones feelings and emotions along with the cognitive. Overemphasis of the cognitive was not conducive to good learning.

Motivation

Motivation impacts learning in interesting ways. Glasser’s (1990) Control Theory is a theory of motivation that ties learning to what a person wants most at any given time. Brown (1996; 1990) identifies the internal or external motivators that drive a person’s locus of control. This locus of control impacts how a person attributes success or failure and thus, what their motivation is to learn. Dewey’s (1938) theory found experiential learning leads us to more learning. Experiential learning motivates us to learn. Rogers (2004) stated that motivation is the single most important factor for the learner. She said, “Unless you are motivated you will not and cannot learn,” (15). Adult learning combined with personality psychology continued to expand during the 1980’s. Levinson’s seminal work (1978) Season’s of a Man’s Life and Carol Gilligan’s In a Different Voice brought further attention to adulthood relative to age, gender, and culture. Female development up to this time had been researched as though complete adult development was inaccessible to the female by virtue of gender characteristics. These studies countered that thinking and elevated that girls do learn differently than boys.

Intelligence

Guilford (1950) believed that the intellect was comprised of operations, content and products. His interest was focused on creativity and how one develops this ability. Creativity and how we engage the learner is supported by Gardner’s (1983) multiple intelligences theory. He has to date identified nine intelligences: