The achievement gap between white and non-white students: a conceptual  (Page 7/19)

Some historians have conceded that the agreement that was made between the United States and the Mexican citizens was fulfilled to few Mexicans (Griswold De Castillo, 1990; Menchaca, 1993; O’Rourke, 1998). Many Mexicans’ land was stripped from them under the pretense that grants signed through the Spanish and Mexican government were not recognized and invalid (Lopez, 1997; Menchaca, 1993; Ruiz, 2006; Zentella, 2004). Many Mexicans were looked upon as foreigners and were treated as second class citizens (O’Rouke, 1998). Mexicans who were of Spanish descent and of light phenotype became assimilated, yet discrimination toward Mexicans who were darker skinned and of indigenous descent became prevalent throughout the southwest (Menchaca, 1993). Mexicans were seen as inferior and subordinates by their Anglo counterparts (Menchaca, 1993; Ruiz, 2006; Zentella, 2004). Mexican children were also discriminated against for their lack of English proficiency and were often segregated in school because of the color of their skin (Menchaca, 1993). This sentiment and extreme hatred became a norm for many Mexicans who chose to continue to live in the territory that had been occupied by their families for generations and become citizens of a foreign and hostile country.

The animosity that was faced by Mexicans in the southwest during the 1800s is still existent today (Menchaca, 1993; Ruiz, 2006; Zentella, 2004). The sentiment of inferiority is now felt by Hispanics from different Spanish speaking countries who now reside throughout the United States (Ramirez&De La Cruz, 2003). In the 2002 U.S. Census report, it was estimated that over 37 million Hispanics were living in the United States (Ramirez&De La Cruz, 2003). Of the 37.4 million, 66.9% were of Mexican origin, 14.3% were of Central and South American origin, 8.6% were of Puerto Rican origin, 3.7% were of Cuban origin, and 6.5% were designated other (Ramirez&De La Cruz, 2003). According to the Census Bureau, Hispanic families are likely to be larger than their White counterparts and 43% Latinos, ages 25 and older, do not have a high school diploma. Hispanics are more likely to be unemployed compared to Whites and over 21% of Latinos live in poverty across the United States (Ramirez&De La Cruz, 2003).

Hispanics illegally enter the United States for economic opportunities that are limited in their own countries. Many Hispanics leave behind families, friends, and familiar surroundings to live in a country that has held and continue to hold great animosity for undocumented residents (Berg, 2009; Flores&Chapa, 2009). Yet, some undocumented Latinos eventually bring their families to the United States. Many Latinos have chosen and continue to chose to have their offspring in the United States. Passel and Cohen (2009) estimated that 73% of undocumented parents have children who are born as American citizens. In K-12 schools, it is estimated that 6.8% of the students nationally have at least one parent who is undocumented. The Pew Hispanic Center estimated that there were nearly 12 million illegal immigrants in the United States in 2006 (Passel&Cohen, 2009). Over 75% were estimated to be of Hispanic origin and nearly 60% were of Mexican origin. Among undocumented immigrants, the Pew Hispanic Center estimated that 47% do not have a high school diploma from their native country (Passel&Cohen, 2009).