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| Concept | Definition phrased in terms of learning | Definition phrased in terms of motivation | Classroom example |
| Operant | Behavior that becomes more likely because of reinforcement | Behavior that suggests an increase in motivation | Student listens to teacher’s comments during lecture or discussion |
| Reinforcement | Stimulus that increases likelihood of a behavior | Stimulus that motivates | Teacher praises student for listening |
| Positive reinforcement | Stimulus that increases likelihood of a behavior by being introduced or added to a situation | Stimulus that motivates by its presence ; an “incentive” | Teacher makes encouraging remarks about student’s homework |
| Negative reinforcement | Stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behavior by being removed or taken away from a situation | Stimulus that motivates by its absence or avoidance | Teacher cancels a quiz after students turn in homework every day this week |
| Punishment | Stimulus that decreases the likelihood of a behavior by being introduced or added to a situation | Stimulus that decreases motivation by its presence | Teacher deducts points for late homework |
| Extinction | Removal of reinforcement for a behavior | Removal of motivating stimulus that leads to decrease in motivation | Teacher stops commenting altogether about student’s homework |
| Shaping successive approximations | Reinforcements for behaviors that gradually resemble (approximate) a final goal behavior | Stimuli that gradually shift motivation toward a final goal motivation | Teacher praises student for returning homework a bit closer to the deadline; gradually she only praises for actually being on time |
| Continuous reinforcement | Reinforcement that occurs each time that an operant behavior occurs | Motivator that occurs each time that a behavioral sign of motivation occurs | Teacher praises highly active student for every time he works for five minutes without interruption |
| Intermittent reinforcement | Reinforcement that sometimes occurs following an operant behavior, but not on every occasion | Motivator that occurs sometimes when a behavioral sign of motivation occurs, but not on every occasion | Teacher praises highly active student sometimes when he works without interruption, but not every time |
As mentioned earlier, behaviorist perspectives about motivation do reflect a classroom reality: that teachers sometimes lack time and therefore must focus simply on students’ appropriate outward behavior. But there are nonetheless cautions about adopting this view. An obvious one is the ambiguity of students’ specific behaviors; what looks like a sign of one motive to the teacher may in fact be a sign of some other motive to the student (DeGrandpre, 2000). If a student looks at the teacher intently while she is speaking, does it mean the student is motivated to learn, or only that the student is daydreaming? If a student invariably looks away while the teacher is speaking, does it mean that the student is disrespectful of the teacher, or that student comes from a family or cultural group where avoiding eye contact actually shows more respect for a speaker than direct eye contact?
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