3.33 Sspd_chapter 1_part 13_ constituent particles of solid state  (Page 10/14)

At 10 ^-6 sec the energy fell to 1GeV. This energy is equal to the energy equivalent of proton rest mass.( E=mc ² : this is the celebrated equation given by Einstein in his Special Theory of Relativity on which the fission bomb, more popularly known as atom bomb, and fusion bomb commonly known as hydrogen bomb are based)

That is E= 939.57MeV = m _p ×c ² /q;

This implies that before 10 ^-6 sec. protons and neutrons are being fissioned into their constituent quarks:

Neutron split into 2 Down quarks + 1 Up quark;

Proton split into 2 Up quarks + 1 Down quark………………… 1.127

From Table(1.28) we find that 2 Down quarks + 1 Up quark amount to 0 coulomb of charge and (930+Δ)MeV of equivalent mass. Therefore Neutron has 0 charge and (930+Δ) MeV of equivalent mass.

Similarly 2 Up quarks + 1 Down quark amount to 1q amount of charge and 930MeV of equivalent mass. Therefore Proton has +q coulomb of charge and 930MeV of equivalent mass.

This is precisely why when the temperature of the Universe is greater than 1GeV then Proton and Neutron do not have an independent existence and they exist as a soup of gluons and quarks.

Quarks interact through gluons. Gauge Theory of inter-quark force is Quantum Chromo-Dynamics(QCD). Gluons play the same role with respect to inter-quark force as photons play with respect to electromagnetic force. Quarks combine to form Mesons which are the messenger particles of Strong force. These Mesons have charge which are called color hence the word chromo in QCD.

The unification of Strong, Weak and Electro-Magnetic force above 100GeV is the Grand Unified Theory(GUT). GUT is tested through the existence of Magnetic Monopoles. In classical electrodynamics the existence of magnetic monopoles is precluded. Therefore the DIVERGENCE of B is always zero in four Maxwell Equations.

But DIVERGENCE of D is zero only when Cartesian Space under consideration includes no space charge or equal amount of negative and positive charges otherwise DIVERGENCE D = ρ (net charge density). DIV D = 0 is known as Laplace’s Equation and DIV D= ρ is known as Poisson’s Equation.

GUT is also being tested through the decay of protons.

Unification of Gravitational force along with GUT i.e. unification of Gravitational Force, Strong Force, Weak Force and Electro-Magnetic Force is Theory of All (TOA) or the SUPER-SYMMETRIC STRING THEORY.

Within the nucleus, which has a dimension of 7 Fermi(×10 ^-15 m) units, protons in spite of repulsion coexist along with neutrons because of strong force which is several orders of magnitude greater than electromagnetic forces. The carrier particles of this force within the nucleus is Mesons (bosonic particles). Therefore strong forces are also referred to as Mesonic forces. Above 1 GeV, just like protons and neutrons, mesons also loose their integrity and split into the following quarks:

K + Mesons ↔ Up quark + Strange anti-quark;

Π + Mesons ↔ Up quark + Down anti-quark;………………… 1.128

In Table(1.28), no mention is made of anti particles. In fact all material particles have anti-particles. Electron has Positron as anti-particle. Anti-particles have the same mass and spin but opposite charge. Positron and Electron have identical masses but opposite charge.