19.2 Oxidation of pyruvate and the krebs cycle  (Page 2/2)

After the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA by enzymes in the mitochondrial inner membrane, the Krebs cycle takes place in the matrix of mitochondria. Almost all of the enzymes of the Krebs cycle are soluble (i.e., not bound to the membrane), with the single exception of the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase, which is embedded in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. Unlike glycolysis, the Krebs cycle is a closed loop: The last part of the pathway regenerates the compound (oxaloacetate) used in the first step. The eight steps of the cycle are a series of redox, condensation, hydrolysis, and decarboxylation reactions that produce two carbon dioxide molecules, one GTP/ATP, and reduced forms of NADH and FADH ₂ ( [link] ). Even though oxygen is not directly required for these reactions, this is considered an aerobic pathway because the NADH and FADH ₂ produced must transfer their electrons to the next pathway in the system, which will use oxygen. If this transfer does not occur, there won't be any NAD or FADH regenerated, and the oxidation steps of the Krebs cycle cannot occur without those oxidized electron carriers. Note that the Krebs cycle produces very little ATP directly and does not directly consume oxygen.

Steps in the krebs cycle

Step 1. Prior to the start of the first step, a transitional phase occurs during which pyruvic acid is converted to acetyl-CoA. Then, the first step of the cycle begins: This is a condensation step, combining the two-carbon acetyl group with a four-carbon oxaloacetate molecule to form a six-carbon molecule of citrate. CoA is bound to a sulfhydryl group (-SH) and diffuses away to eventually combine with another acetyl group. This step is irreversible because it is highly exergonic. The rate of this reaction is controlled by negative feedback and the amount of ATP available. If ATP levels increase, the rate of this reaction decreases. If ATP is in short supply, the rate increases.

Step 2. In step two, citrate loses one water molecule and gains another as citrate is converted into its isomer, isocitrate.

Step 3. In step three, isocitrate is oxidized, producing a five-carbon molecule, α-ketoglutarate, together with a molecule of CO ₂ and two electrons, which reduce NAD ⁺ to NADH. This step is also regulated by negative feedback from ATP and NADH, and a positive effect of ADP.

Steps 3 and 4. Steps three and four are both oxidation and decarboxylation steps, which release electrons that reduce NAD ⁺ to NADH and release carboxyl groups that form CO ₂ molecules. α-Ketoglutarate is the product of step three, and a succinyl group is the product of step four. CoA binds the succinyl group to form succinyl CoA. The enzyme that catalyzes step four is regulated by feedback inhibition of ATP, succinyl CoA, and NADH.

Step 5. In step five, a phosphate group is substituted for coenzyme A, and a high-energy bond is formed. This energy is used in substrate-level phosphorylation (during the conversion of the succinyl group to succinate) to form either guanine triphosphate (GTP) or ATP. There are two forms of the enzyme, called isoenzymes, for this step, depending upon the type of animal tissue in which they are found. One form is found in tissues that use large amounts of ATP, such as heart and skeletal muscle. This form produces ATP. The second form of the enzyme is found in tissues that have a high number of anabolic pathways, such as liver. This form produces GTP. GTP is energetically equivalent to ATP; however, its use is more restricted. In particular, protein synthesis primarily uses GTP.

Step 6. Step six is a condensation reaction that converts succinate into fumarate. Two hydrogen atoms are transferred to FAD, producing FADH ₂ . The energy contained in the electrons of these atoms is insufficient to reduce NAD ⁺ but adequate to reduce FAD. Unlike NADH, this carrier remains attached to the enzyme and transfers the electrons to the electron transport chain directly. This process is made possible by the localization of the enzyme catalyzing this step inside the inner membrane of the mitochondrion.

Step 7. Water is added to fumarate during step seven, and malate is produced. The last step in the Krebs cycle regenerates oxaloacetate by oxidizing malate. Another molecule of NADH is produced in the process.

Products of the krebs cycle

Two carbon atoms come into the Krebs cycle from each acetyl group, representing four out of the six carbons of one glucose molecule. Two carbon dioxide molecules are released on each turn of the cycle; however, these do not necessarily contain the most recently added carbon atoms. The two acetyl carbon atoms will eventually be released on later turns of the cycle; thus, all six carbon atoms from the original glucose molecule are eventually incorporated into carbon dioxide. Each turn of the cycle forms three NADH molecules and one FADH ₂ molecule. These carriers will connect with the last portion of aerobic respiration to produce ATP molecules. One ATP is also made in each cycle ( [link] ).