12.2 Bias, error and misuse  (Page 23/2)

Bias and error in measurements

All measurements have some error associated with them. Random errors occur in all data sets and are sometimes known as non-systematic errors. Random errors can arise from estimation of data values, imprecision of instruments, etc. For example if you are reading lengths off a ruler, random errors will arise in each measurement as a result of estimating between which two lines the length lies. Bias is also sometimes known as systematic error. Bias in a data set is where a value is consistently under or overestimated. Bias can arise from forgetting to take into account a correction factor or from instruments that are not properly calibrated (calibration is the process of marking off predefined measurements). Bias leads to a sample mean that is either lower or higher than the true mean.

Data interpretation

Many people take statistics and just blindly apply it to life or quote it. This, however, is not wise since the data that led to the statistics also needs to be considered. A well known example of several sets of data that lead to the same statistical analysis (the process of examining data and determining values such as central tendency, etc.) but are in fact very different is Anscombe's quartet. This is shown in [link] . In Grade 11 you will learn about the methods used to represent data graphically. For now, however, you should simply appreciate the fact that we can plot data values on the Cartesian plane in a similar way to plotting graphs. If each of the datasets in Anscombe's quartet are analysed statistically, then one finds that the mean, variance, correlation and linear regression (these terms will be explained in later grades) are identical. If, instead of analysing the data statistically, we simply plot the data points we can see that the data sets are very different. This example shows us that it is very important to consider the underlying data set as well as the statistics that we obtain from the data. We cannot simply assume that just because we know the statistics of a data set, we know what the data set is telling us. For general interest, some of the ways that statistics and data can be misinterpreted are given in the following extension section.

Misuse of statistics - for enrichment, not in caps

In many cases groups can gain an advantage by misleading people with the misuse of statistics. Companies misuse statistics to attempt to show that they are performing better than a competitor, advertisers abuse statistics to try to convince you to buy their product, researchers misuse statistics to attempt to show that their data is of better quality than it really is, etc.

Common techniques used include:

• Three dimensional graphs.
• Axes that do not start at zero.
• Axes without scales.
• Graphic images that convey a negative or positive mood.
• Assumption that a correlation shows a necessary causality.
• Using statistics that are not truly representative of the entire population.
• Using misconceptions of mathematical concepts