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Prior to 1940, the heaviest-known element was uranium, whose atomic number is 92. Now, many artificial elements have been synthesized and isolated, including several on such a large scale that they have had a profound effect on society. One of these—element 93, neptunium (Np)—was first made in 1940 by McMillan and Abelson by bombarding uranium-238 with neutrons. The reaction creates unstable uranium-239, with a half-life of 23.5 minutes, which then decays into neptunium-239. Neptunium-239 is also radioactive, with a half-life of 2.36 days, and it decays into plutonium-239. The nuclear reactions are:

92 238 U + 0 1 n 92 239 U 92 239 U 93 239 Np + −1 0 e t 1 / 2 half-life = 23.5 min 93 239 Np 94 239 Pu + −1 0 e t 1 / 2 half-life = 2.36 days

Plutonium is now mostly formed in nuclear reactors as a byproduct during the decay of uranium. Some of the neutrons that are released during U-235 decay combine with U-238 nuclei to form uranium-239; this undergoes β decay to form neptunium-239, which in turn undergoes β decay to form plutonium-239 as illustrated in the preceding three equations. It is possible to summarize these equations as:

92 238 U + 0 1 n 92 239 U β 93 239 Np β 94 239 Pu

Heavier isotopes of plutonium—Pu-240, Pu-241, and Pu-242—are also produced when lighter plutonium nuclei capture neutrons. Some of this highly radioactive plutonium is used to produce military weapons, and the rest presents a serious storage problem because they have half-lives from thousands to hundreds of thousands of years.

Although they have not been prepared in the same quantity as plutonium, many other synthetic nuclei have been produced. Nuclear medicine has developed from the ability to convert atoms of one type into other types of atoms. Radioactive isotopes of several dozen elements are currently used for medical applications. The radiation produced by their decay is used to image or treat various organs or portions of the body, among other uses.

The elements beyond element 92 (uranium) are called transuranium elements . As of this writing, 22 transuranium elements have been produced and officially recognized by IUPAC; several other elements have formation claims that are waiting for approval. Some of these elements are shown in [link] .

Preparation of Some of the Transuranium Elements
Name Symbol Atomic Number Reaction
americium Am 95 94 239 Pu + 0 1 n 95 240 Am + −1 0 e
curium Cm 96 94 239 Pu + 2 4 He 96 242 Cm + 0 1 n
californium Cf 98 96 242 Cm + 2 4 He 97 243 Bk + 2 0 1 n
einsteinium Es 99 92 238 U + 15 0 1 n 99 253 Es + 7 −1 0 e
mendelevium Md 101 99 253 Es + 2 4 He 101 256 Md + 0 1 n
nobelium No 102 96 246 Cm + 6 12 C 102 254 No + 4 0 1 n
rutherfordium Rf 104 98 249 Cf + 6 12 C 104 257 Rf + 4 0 1 n
seaborgium Sg 106 82 206 Pb + 24 54 Cr 106 257 Sg + 3 0 1 n 98 249 Cf + 8 18 O 106 263 Sg + 4 0 1 n
meitnerium Mt 107 83 209 Bi + 26 58 Fe 109 266 Mt + 0 1 n

Nuclear fission

Many heavier elements with smaller binding energies per nucleon can decompose into more stable elements that have intermediate mass numbers and larger binding energies per nucleon—that is, mass numbers and binding energies per nucleon that are closer to the “peak” of the binding energy graph near 56 (see [link] ). Sometimes neutrons are also produced. This decomposition is called fission    , the breaking of a large nucleus into smaller pieces. The breaking is rather random with the formation of a large number of different products. Fission usually does not occur naturally, but is induced by bombardment with neutrons. The first reported nuclear fission occurred in 1939 when three German scientists, Lise Meitner, Otto Hahn, and Fritz Strassman, bombarded uranium-235 atoms with slow-moving neutrons that split the U-238 nuclei into smaller fragments that consisted of several neutrons and elements near the middle of the periodic table. Since then, fission has been observed in many other isotopes, including most actinide isotopes that have an odd number of neutrons. A typical nuclear fission reaction is shown in [link] .

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Source:  OpenStax, Ut austin - principles of chemistry. OpenStax CNX. Mar 31, 2016 Download for free at http://legacy.cnx.org/content/col11830/1.13
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