1.2 Professional ethics in puerto rico: codes, problem solving,  (Page 2/7)

What you need to know

This section provides general background information useful for this module. It includes information on how to (1) define problems, (2) design and evaluate ethical solutions, and (3)resolve disagreements. These frameworks can be used with the Pre-Test and Gray Matters activities.

Problem solving stages (based on analogy between the problem solving and design processes

1. Problem Specification or Definition : This stage consists of defining the problem you face from different standpoints or frames. Carefully defining your problem is an essential step to designing effective and ethical solutions. Defining your problem from multiple frames or vantage points, also helps you to create imaginative and ethical solutions to problems that appear unsolvable under commonplace framings.
2. Solution Generation : In this stage, you will try to resolve the problem you defined in the previous stage. In a section below, you will find a list of generic solutions to disagreements between stakeholders.
3. Solution Testing : The solutions developed in the second stage must be tested in different ways. The reversibility test encapsulates the ethical theory of deontology; exploring the issue from the standpoint of those on the receiving end of your action outlines the idea of reciprocity which is fundamental to deontology. The harm/benefits test has you weigh benefits against harms and steers you toward that solution that produces the most benefits and the least harms. This provides a reasonable approximation to the theory of Utilitarianism which enjoins us to produce the greatest good for the greatest number. Finally, the publicity test has you attribute the values embedded in the act to the character of the agent. In this way, the publicity test encapsulates virtue ethics.
4. Solution Implementation : The chosen solution must be examined in terms of how well it responds to various situational constraints that could impede its implementation. To carry out this stage, imagine a check list of resource, interest, and technical constraints that could give rise to obstacles. Go through the list to see if any of these constraints applies to your solution.

Problems can be defined in different ways. by looking at a problem through different definitional frames, we are able to uncover non-obvious, creative solutions. technical problems require that we focus on the hardware and software components of the underlying socio-technical system.

1. Technical Puzzle : If the problem is framed as a technical puzzle, then solutions would revolve around developing designs that optimize both ethical and technical specifications, that is, resolve the technical issues and realize ethical value. For example, Phaust chemists could solve the problems of the leaky batches in the new plant by coming up with a new chemical formulation of the paint stripper that doesn't require high temperature and pressure.
2. Social Problem : If the problem is framed as a social problem, then solutions would revolve around changing laws or bringing about systemic reform through political action. This would lead one to focus on the people/groups/roles component (working to social practices) or the legal component of a socio-technical system. Fred's dilemma on whether to line the holding ponds at the Morales plant could be resolved if international environmental standards were raised to EPA levels.
3. Stakeholder Conflict : If the problem is framed as a conflict between different stakeholder interests, then the solution would concentrate on getting stakeholders (both individuals and groups) to agree on integrative or compromise-building solutions. This requires concentrating on the people/group/role component of the STS. (Note: A stakeholder is any group or individual with a vital interest at play in the situation.) Fred is hard pressed to satisfy Wally's One Rule, the French company's mandated budget cuts, concerns about environmental contamination (expressed by his wife, an EPA litigator), and the Mexican government's concern about worker and plant safety.
4. Management Problem : Finally, if the problem is framed as a management problem, then the solution would revolve around changing an organization's procedures. Along these lines, it would address the organization's (1) fundamental goals, (2) decision recognition procedures, (3) organizational roles, and/or (4) decision-making hierarchy. These four components comprise the organization's CID (corporate internal decision) structure. Fred would not have to deal with the moral concerns about passing off problems to the operations division of Phaust if there were company regulations against this or if Phaust did not present an organizational system that pits plant designers against operations.