This module introduces the concept of statistics, specifically the ability to use statistics to describe data (descriptive statistics) as well as draw conclusions (inferential statistics). An optional classroom exercise is included.
The science of
statistics deals with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of
data . We see and use data in our everyday lives.
Optional collaborative classroom exercise
In your classroom, try this exercise. Have class members write down the average time (in hours, to the nearest half-hour) they sleep per night. Your instructor will record the data. Then create a simple graph (called a
dot plot ) of the data. A dot plot consists of a number line and dots (or points) positioned above the number line. For example, consider the following data:
5
5.5
6
6
6
6.5
6.5
6.5
6.5
7
7
8
8
9
The dot plot for this data would be as follows:
Frequency of average time (in hours) spent sleeping per night
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Does your dot plot look the same as or different from the example? Why? If you did the same example in an English class with the same number of students, do you think the results would be the same? Why or why not?
Where do your data appear to cluster? How could you interpret the clustering?
The questions above ask you to analyze and interpret your data. With this example, you have begun your study of statistics.
In this course, you will learn how to organize and summarize data. Organizing and summarizing data is called
descriptive statistics . Two ways to summarize data are by graphing and by numbers (for example, finding an average). After you have studied probability and probability distributions, you will use formal methods for drawing conclusions from "good" data. The formal methods are called
inferential statistics . Statistical inference uses probability to determine how confident we can be that the conclusions are correct.
Effective interpretation of data (inference) is based on good procedures for producing data and thoughtful examination of the data. You will encounter what will seem to be too many mathematical formulas for interpreting data. The goal of statistics is not to perform numerous calculations using the formulas, but to gain an understanding of your data. The calculations can be done using a calculator or a computer. The understanding must come from you. If you can thoroughly grasp the basics of statistics, you can be more confident in the decisions you make in life.
Levels of measurement and statistical operations
The way a set of data is measured is called its level of measurement. Correct statistical procedures depend on a researcher being familiar with levels of measurement. Not every statistical operation can be used with every set of data.
Data can be classified into four levels of measurement. They are (from lowest to highest level):
Nominal scale level
Ordinal scale level
Interval scale level
Ratio scale level
Data that is measured using a
nominal scale is qualitative. Categories, colors, names, labels and favorite foods along with yes or no responses are examples of nominal level data. Nominal scale data are not ordered. For example, trying to classify people according to their favorite food does not make any sense. Putting pizza first and sushi second is not meaningful.
Smartphone companies are another example of nominal scale data. Some examples are Sony, Motorola, Nokia, Samsung and Apple. This is just a list and there is no agreed upon order. Some people may favor Apple but that is a matter of opinion. Nominal scale data cannot be used in calculations.
Data that is measured using an
ordinal scale is similar to nominal scale data but there is a big difference. The ordinal scale data can be ordered. An example of ordinal scale data is a list of the top five national parks in the United States. The top five national parks in the United States can be ranked from one to five but we cannot measure differences between the data.
Another example using the ordinal scale is a cruise survey where the responses to questions about the cruise are “excellent,” “good,” “satisfactory” and “unsatisfactory.” These responses are ordered from the most desired response by the cruise lines to the least desired. But the differences between two pieces of data cannot be measured. Like the nominal scale data, ordinal scale data cannot be used in calculations.
Data that is measured using the
interval scale is similar to ordinal level data because it has a definite ordering but there is a difference between data. The differences between interval scale data can be measured though the data does not have a starting point.
Temperature scales like Celsius (C) and Fahrenheit (F) are measured by using the interval scale. In both temperature measurements, 40 degrees is equal to 100 degrees minus 60 degrees. Differences make sense. But 0 degrees does not because, in both scales, 0 is not the absolute lowest temperature. Temperatures like
-10ᵒ F and -15ᵒ C exist and are colder than 0.
Interval level data can be used in calculations but one type of comparison cannot be done. Eighty degrees C is not 4 times as hot as 20ᵒ C (nor is 80ᵒ F 4 times as hot as 20ᵒ F). There is no meaning to the ratio of 80 to 20 (or 4 to 1).
Data that is measured using the
ratio scale takes care of the ratio problem and gives you the most information. Ratio scale data is like interval scale data but, in addition, it has a 0 point and ratios can be calculated. For example, four multiple choice statistics final exam scores are 80, 68, 20 and 92 (out of a possible 100 points). The exams were machine-graded.
The data can be put in order from lowest to highest: 20, 68, 80, 92.
The differences between the data have meaning. The score 92 is more than the score 68 by 24 points.
Ratios can be calculated. The smallest score for ratio data is 0. So 80 is 4 times 20. The score of 80 is 4 times better than the score of 20.
Exercises
What type of measure scale is being used? Nominal, Ordinal, Interval or Ratio.
High school men soccer players classified by their athletic ability: Superior, Average, Above average.
Baking temperatures for various main dishes: 350, 400, 325, 250, 300
The colors of crayons in a 24-crayon box.
Social security numbers.
Incomes measured in dollars
A satisfaction survey of a social website by number: 1 = very satisfied, 2 = somewhat satisfied, 3 = not satisfied.
Political outlook: extreme left, left-of-center, right-of-center, extreme right.
Time of day on an analog watch.
The distance in miles to the closest grocery store.
Communication is effective because it allows individuals to share ideas, thoughts, and information with others.
effective communication can lead to improved outcomes in various settings, including personal relationships, business environments, and educational settings. By communicating effectively, individuals can negotiate effectively, solve problems collaboratively, and work towards common goals.
it starts up serve and return practice/assessments.it helps find voice talking therapy also assessments through relaxed conversation.
miss
Every time someone flushes a toilet in the apartment building, the person begins to jumb back automatically after hearing the flush, before the water temperature changes. Identify the types of learning, if it is classical conditioning identify the NS, UCS, CS and CR. If it is operant conditioning, identify the type of consequence positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment
nature is an hereditary factor while nurture is an environmental factor which constitute an individual personality. so if an individual's parent has a deviant behavior and was also brought up in an deviant environment, observation of the behavior and the inborn trait we make the individual deviant.
Samuel
I am taking this course because I am hoping that I could somehow learn more about my chosen field of interest and due to the fact that being a PsyD really ignites my passion as an individual the more I hope to learn about developing and literally explore the complexity of my critical thinking skills
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