0.10 Soils

Soils

Introduction

Soil plays an important role in land ecosystems. In order for a community of producers and consumers to become established on land, soil must be present. Furthermore, soil quality is often a limiting factor for population growth in ecosystems. Soil is a complex mixture of inorganic materials, organic materials, microorganisms, water and air. Its formation begins with the weathering of bedrock or the transport of sediments from another area. These small grains of rock accumulate on the surface of the earth. There they are mixed with organic matter called humus , which results from the decomposition of the waste and dead tissue of organisms. Infiltrating rainwater and air also contribute to the mixture and become trapped in pore spaces. This formation process is very slow (hundreds to thousands of years), and thus soil loss or degradation can be very detrimental to a community.

Soil profile

Mature soils are layered. These layers are known as soil horizons , and each has a distinct texture and composition. A typical soil has a soil profile consisting of four horizons, which are designated: O, A, B and C. The O horizon is the top layer at the earth's surface. It consists of surface litter, such as fallen leaves (duff), sticks and other plant material, animal waste and dead organisms. A distinct O horizon may not exist in all soil environments (e.g., desert soil). Below the O horizon is the A horizon , which is also known as topsoil . This layer contains organic humus, which usually gives it a distinctive dark color. The B horizon , or sub-soil is the next layer down from the surface. It consists mostly of inorganic rock materials such as sand, silt and clay. The C horizon sits atop bedrock and therefore is made up of weathered rock fragments. The bedrock is the source of the parent inorganic materials found in the soil.

The O horizon protects the underlying topsoil from erosion and moisture loss by evaporation. The O and A horizons in typical mature soils have an abundance of microorganisms (e.g. fungi, bacteria), earthworms and insects. These organisms decompose the organic material from dead organisms and animal waste into inorganic nutrients useable by plants. The organic humus in the A horizon aids in holding water and nutrients, making it the most fertile layer. Therefore, plants with shallow roots are anchored in the A horizon. Water seeping through the upper layers may dissolve water-soluble minerals and transport them to lower layers in a process called leaching . Very fine clay particles can also be transported by seeping water and accumulate in the subsoil layer. The accumulation of clay particles and leached minerals can lead to compaction of the B horizon. This compaction can limit the flow of water through the layer and cause the soil above to become waterlogged.