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Let’s now apply this definition to calculate a differentiation formula for a x . We have

d d x a x = d d x e x ln a = e x ln a ln a = a x ln a .

The corresponding integration formula follows immediately.

Derivatives and integrals involving general exponential functions

Let a > 0 . Then,

d d x a x = a x ln a

and

a x d x = 1 ln a a x + C .

If a 1 , then the function a x is one-to-one and has a well-defined inverse. Its inverse is denoted by log a x . Then,

y = log a x if and only if x = a y .

Note that general logarithm functions can be written in terms of the natural logarithm. Let y = log a x . Then, x = a y . Taking the natural logarithm of both sides of this second equation, we get

ln x = ln ( a y ) ln x = y ln a y = ln x ln a log a x = ln x ln a .

Thus, we see that all logarithmic functions are constant multiples of one another. Next, we use this formula to find a differentiation formula for a logarithm with base a . Again, let y = log a x . Then,

d y d x = d d x ( log a x ) = d d x ( ln x ln a ) = ( 1 ln a ) d d x ( ln x ) = 1 ln a · 1 x = 1 x ln a .

Derivatives of general logarithm functions

Let a > 0 . Then,

d d x log a x = 1 x ln a .

Calculating derivatives of general exponential and logarithm functions

Evaluate the following derivatives:

  1. d d t ( 4 t · 2 t 2 )
  2. d d x log 8 ( 7 x 2 + 4 )

We need to apply the chain rule as necessary.

  1. d d t ( 4 t · 2 t 2 ) = d d t ( 2 2 t · 2 t 2 ) = d d t ( 2 2 t + t 2 ) = 2 2 t + t 2 ln ( 2 ) ( 2 + 2 t )
  2. d d x log 8 ( 7 x 2 + 4 ) = 1 ( 7 x 2 + 4 ) ( ln 8 ) ( 14 x )
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Evaluate the following derivatives:

  1. d d t 4 t 4
  2. d d x log 3 ( x 2 + 1 )
  1. d d t 4 t 4 = 4 t 4 ( ln 4 ) ( 4 t 3 )
  2. d d x log 3 ( x 2 + 1 ) = x ( ln 3 ) ( x 2 + 1 )
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Integrating general exponential functions

Evaluate the following integral: 3 2 3 x d x .

Use u -substitution and let u = −3 x . Then d u = −3 d x and we have

3 2 3 x d x = 3 · 2 −3 x d x = 2 u d u = 1 ln 2 2 u + C = 1 ln 2 2 −3 x + C .
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Evaluate the following integral: x 2 2 x 3 d x .

x 2 2 x 3 d x = 1 3 ln 2 2 x 3 + C

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Key concepts

  • The earlier treatment of logarithms and exponential functions did not define the functions precisely and formally. This section develops the concepts in a mathematically rigorous way.
  • The cornerstone of the development is the definition of the natural logarithm in terms of an integral.
  • The function e x is then defined as the inverse of the natural logarithm.
  • General exponential functions are defined in terms of e x , and the corresponding inverse functions are general logarithms.
  • Familiar properties of logarithms and exponents still hold in this more rigorous context.

Key equations

  • Natural logarithm function
  • ln x = 1 x 1 t d t Z
  • Exponential function y = e x
  • ln y = ln ( e x ) = x Z

For the following exercises, find the derivative d y d x .

y = 1 ln x

1 x ( ln x ) 2

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For the following exercises, find the indefinite integral.

d x 1 + x

ln ( x + 1 ) + C

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For the following exercises, find the derivative d y / d x . (You can use a calculator to plot the function and the derivative to confirm that it is correct.)

[T] y = x ln ( x )

ln ( x ) + 1

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[T] y = ln ( sin x )

cot ( x )

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[T] y = 7 ln ( 4 x )

7 x

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[T] y = ln ( ( 4 x ) 7 )

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[T] y = ln ( tan x )

csc ( x ) sec x

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[T] y = ln ( tan ( 3 x ) )

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[T] y = ln ( cos 2 x )

−2 tan x

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For the following exercises, find the definite or indefinite integral.

0 1 d t 3 + 2 t

1 2 ln ( 5 3 )

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0 2 x 3 d x x 2 + 1

2 1 2 ln ( 5 )

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2 e d x ( x ln ( x ) ) 2

1 ln ( 2 ) 1

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0 π / 4 tan x d x

1 2 ln ( 2 )

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( ln x ) 2 d x x

1 3 ( ln x ) 3

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For the following exercises, compute d y / d x by differentiating ln y .

y = x 2 + 1 x 2 1

2 x 3 x 2 + 1 x 2 1

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y = x −1 / x

x −2 ( 1 / x ) ( ln x 1 )

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y = e ln x

1 x 2

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For the following exercises, evaluate by any method.

5 10 d t t 5 x 10 x d t t

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1 e π d x x + −2 −1 d x x

π ln ( 2 )

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d d x x x 2 d t t

1 x

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d d x ln ( sec x + tan x )

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For the following exercises, use the function ln x . If you are unable to find intersection points analytically, use a calculator.

Find the area of the region enclosed by x = 1 and y = 5 above y = ln x .

e 5 6 units 2

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[T] Find the arc length of ln x from x = 1 to x = 2 .

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Find the area between ln x and the x -axis from x = 1 to x = 2 .

ln ( 4 ) 1 units 2

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Find the volume of the shape created when rotating this curve from x = 1 to x = 2 around the x -axis, as pictured here.

This figure is a surface. It has been generated by revolving the curve ln x about the x-axis. The surface is inside of a cube showing it is 3-dimensinal.
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[T] Find the surface area of the shape created when rotating the curve in the previous exercise from x = 1 to x = 2 around the x -axis.

2.8656

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If you are unable to find intersection points analytically in the following exercises, use a calculator.

Find the area of the hyperbolic quarter-circle enclosed by x = 2 and y = 2 above y = 1 / x .

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[T] Find the arc length of y = 1 / x from x = 1 to x = 4 .

3.1502

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Find the area under y = 1 / x and above the x -axis from x = 1 to x = 4 .

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For the following exercises, verify the derivatives and antiderivatives.

d d x ln ( x + x 2 + 1 ) = 1 1 + x 2

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d d x ln ( x a x + a ) = 2 a ( x 2 a 2 )

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d d x ln ( 1 + 1 x 2 x ) = 1 x 1 x 2

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d d x ln ( x + x 2 a 2 ) = 1 x 2 a 2

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d x x ln ( x ) ln ( ln x ) = ln ( ln ( ln x ) ) + C

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Source:  OpenStax, Calculus volume 1. OpenStax CNX. Feb 05, 2016 Download for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.2
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