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Nicolaus Copernicus introduced the heliocentric cosmology to Renaissance Europe in his book De Revolutionibus . Although he retained the Aristotelian idea of uniform circular motion, Copernicus suggested that Earth is a planet and that the planets all circle about the Sun, dethroning Earth from its position at the center of the universe. Galileo was the father of both modern experimental physics and telescopic astronomy. He studied the acceleration of moving objects and, in 1610, began telescopic observations, discovering the nature of the Milky Way, the large-scale features of the Moon, the phases of Venus, and four moons of Jupiter. Although he was accused of heresy for his support of heliocentric cosmology, Galileo is credited with observations and brilliant writings that convinced most of his scientific contemporaries of the reality of the Copernican theory.
Gingerich, O. “From Aristarchus to Copernicus.” Sky&Telescope (November 1983): 410.
Gingerich, O. “Islamic Astronomy.” Scientific American (April 1986): 74.
Fraknoi, A. “Your Astrology Defense Kit.” Sky&Telescope (August 1989): 146.
Gingerich, O. “Galileo and the Phases of Venus.” Sky&Telescope (December 1984): 520.
Gingerich, O. “How Galileo Changed the Rules of Science.” Sky&Telescope (March 1993): 32.
Maran, S., and Marschall, L. “The Moon, the Telescope, and the Birth of the Modern World.” Sky&Telescope (February 2009): 28.
Sobel, D. “The Heretic’s Daughter: A Startling Correspondence Reveals a New Portrait of Galileo.” The New Yorker (September 13, 1999): 52.
Aristarchos of Samos: http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/JRASC/0075//0000029.000.html. By Dr. Alan Batten.
Claudius Ptolemy: http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Ptolemy.html. An interesting biography.
Hipparchus of Rhodes: http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Hipparchus.html. An interesting biography.
Astrology and Science: http://www.astrology-and-science.com/hpage.htm. The best site for a serious examination of the issues with astrology and the research on whether it works.
Real Romance in the Stars: http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/the-real-romance-in-the-stars-1527970.html. 1995 newspaper commentary attacking astrology.
Galileo Galilei: http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Galileo.html. A good biography with additional links.
Galileo Project: http://galileo.rice.edu/. Rice University’s repository of information on Galileo.
Nicolaus Copernicus: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Copernicus.html. A biography including links to photos about his life.
Astrology Debunked: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y84HX2pMo5U. A compilation of scientists and magicians commenting skeptically on astrology (9:09).
Galileo: http://www.biography.com/people/galileo-9305220. A brief biography (2:51).
Galileo’s Battle for the Heavens: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VnEH9rbrIkk. A NOVA episode on PBS (1:48:55)
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